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Introduction

Tue, 24 Oct 2006 14:55:42 GMT

Introduction

In this unit we look at the notion of parents as partners. We identify a cluster of reasons why partnership is considered important – for children, parents and practitioners – and give examples of ways in which it can be interpreted in practice. We also outline a conceptual framework to accommodate the possible range of parental involvement and partnership practice.

Parental involvement practice is usually conceptualized and specified by professionals. As a result, it is necessary for practitioners to be open and receptive to feedback and suggestions both from parents and children. Some parents, for reasons that may not be apparent to practitioners, are reluctant to become involved in their children's care and education; others may choose not to become involved. Practitioners need to be aware of parents' feelings, and to be cautious about blaming them for what seems to be a lack of interest.

As we show throughout this unit, partnership can take many forms. We discuss how while projects and special initiatives that encourage parental involvement can be exciting and stimulating, they can also be short lived and heavily reliant on the provision of extra funds. The unit underlines how partnership needs to be a way of life that becomes embedded in the ongoing day-to-day exchanges that take place between parents, practitioners and children.

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

discuss the issues surrounding parental partnership in early years education;

understand the reasons why some parents and carers may find it difficult to work in close collaboration with practitioners;

identify some of the many benefits of partnership for children, parents and practitioners;

appreciate practices that can be used to foster parental partnership;

understand the rationale for the type of parent partnership that is used in your setting.

What is meant by ‘Partnership with parents’

Tue, 24 Oct 2006 14:55:42 GMT

What is meant by ‘Partnership with parents’

‘Partnership with parents’ is a familiar phrase in education. Without exception, all early years settings wish for a close, two-way relationship with children's parents and carers. There is considerable evidence of the value of partnership, but also reason to think that it is not a straightforward notion.

Figure 1: Sally Jeffs, a parent who runs Footprints, with Kalem and Saski

This unit aims to support your understanding of what partnership might mean, how it can be interpreted, and how it might be put into practice in educational settings. We take a realistic view of the challenges that can arise when practitioners and parents endeavour to work closely together for the benefit of children's development and learning. But we suggest that the onus should be on practitioners, as professionals, to understand why some parents may be tentative about becoming partners. The unit provides examples of partnership in action, and offers a framework for understanding the range of partnership practice that can be found in today's early education settings.

The nature of partnership

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1 Practitioner – parent partnerships

The nature of partnership

Partnership: An association of two or more people as partners; a joint business.

(The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles) ©

Partnership can be found in many areas of life. Solicitors, accountants, doctors and dental surgeons often set up partnerships. People ‘in partnership’ own shops and department stores, such as the ‘John Lewis Partnership’. There is currently much discussion about setting up ‘private – public partnerships’ in order to draw much-needed finance into the public services. Partnership, as a legally binding arrangement, comes with a set of principles linked to the partners' roles and responsibilities, and an equality of participation.

In education, the idea of a partnership between parents and practitioners has been around for many years. In the late 1970s the Warnock Report reviewed provision for children with special educational needs in England and Wales. The report contained an influential chapter entitled ‘Parents as partners’ (CEEHCYP, 1978). Indeed, it is now within the area of special educational needs and inclusive education that partnership with parents can often be found in its most developed form. Parents of a child with complex needs can become very knowledgeable about their child's requirements. Wolfendale (1987), writing of the rationale for involving parents in assessment, refers to their ‘equivalent expertise’. There is much to suggest that practitioners stand to be more informed professionals if they form close partnerships with parents. In fact, when children have complex needs, professionals find that they must consult with parents in order to understand and make provision for those needs.

There are a number of concepts associated with the notion of practitioner – parent partnership, including ‘parental participation’, ‘parental involvement’, ‘parental support’ and ‘parental collaboration’. There is, however, much overlap between these terms. ‘Partnership’ has become the preferred term to describe the relationship that an early years setting aims to have with its parent body. This is reflected in the day-to-day language used by practitioners, and in the various curriculum guidance documents produced by all four UK countries. In early years care and education contexts, the notion of partnership is associated with ‘shared understanding, mutual respect and discussion’ (ACCAC, 2000, p. 9) rather than a formal laying down of the roles and responsibilities of the partners in a legal way.

Within primary schools, however, the requirement to introduce home-school agreements in September 1999 has shifted the balance towards a more formal notion of partnership. This has been met with mixed reactions from parents, teachers and teaching assistants. Indeed, Bastiani (1996), reviewing the issues surrounding such agreements, is unsure whether agreements provide an ‘opportunity or a threat’ to relations between parents, children and teachers. At face value, an agreement seems a good way of bringing these three parties together. However, the formulation of an agreement takes time, and there is a risk that schools might wish to do it quickly. Parents and children may be left out of the essential consultation process, and then just told what the agreement will be.

A broadly accepted principle

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1 Practitioner – parent partnerships

A broadly accepted principle

Looking back over time, parent – practitioner relations didn't always get off to a good start. Increased provision for children in the early years, including universal state education, served to create a sense of separation between family and child. Desiree Wilby, writing in the early 1900s, expressed her concern:

The mother is no longer needed, the State has undertaken her work.

(Maclure, 1968, p. 78) ©

It seems that schools were slower to develop working relationships with parents than pre-school settings. While there is now much evidence of change, there is also considerable variation across the country, and favourable developments in parental involvement can easily be knocked back. Chris Woodhead, one-time Chief Inspector of Schools, suggests that we need a concept of partnership that enables each partner ‘to move beyond defensiveness' (Woodhead, 1998).

The Pre-school Learning Alliance has voiced several concerns relating to parental involvement in UK settings. In particular, the organization wishes to see a strengthening of the role of parents in the education of children under five, but believes that the increased ‘professionalization’ of early years provision could result in less parental involvement arising naturally from within communities (Cassidy, 2002). It sees practice in France as a good example of involving parents. France has a strong tradition of state provision, but parents are also able to start their own nurseries aided by the state. In this way, parents can be given increased influence over their children's early education.

Despite these concerns, more open and inclusive professional attitudes in recent years have doubtless led to widespread recognition of the importance of parents as partners, particularly during children's earliest years when care and education are inextricably linked. Parental participation has also been enabled by specific educational legislation, which gives parents greater voice as consumers of a public service. For instance, there is now parental representation both at local education authority (LEA) and school governing body levels, and inclusion of parental feedback in Office for Standards in Education England (Ofsted) inspections. Through exercising their right of choice (or ‘preference’), parents have been encouraged to express their views, and have been assigned a role to improve services for children. (It is worth noting here that occasionally this has given rise to litigation against an educational setting or LEA, which is unlikely to be in the interests of parent – practitioner partnerships.)

Within early years education, it has long been recognized that parents have much to contribute to children's development and education. In settings where informal contact with parents is the norm (as with childminders and playgroups) rather than something that needs to be achieved, productive collaboration has been a way of life. However, the way in which a partnership is conceptualized and made workable varies considerably: what is deemed appropriate in one area of the UK may not be considered suitable in another; and what is seen as innovative practice in one setting may be seen as commonplace elsewhere.

Furthermore, parents and practitioners view partnership in many different ways. Given that practitioners are in a greater position of power in the partnership, invariably they take the lead in defining its nature and deciding the extent to which parents enter the professional domain. There is much evidence to suggest that practitioners often assume that they know what is in the best interests of parents (see Bastiani and Wolfendale, 1996; Edwards, 2002). Partnership, then, is often very one-sided. As one parent said at a conference to discuss the idea of home-school agreements:

I mean, the parents wouldn't just come towards the teachers and say, I want you to sign this agreement that we've just made up, would they?

(Hancock et al., 1998, p. 18) ©

Why work together?

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1 Practitioner – parent partnerships

Why work together?

There are many reasons why parents and practitioners should work together. Writers and practitioners often stress the benefits for children's learning when practitioners, parents and children work as a team. At a deeper level, such collaboration can be fundamental to children's identity, self-esteem and psychological well-being. The close cooperation of parents and practitioners to provide support to children is especially important during times of change. This alone is a compelling reason for partnership.

It is certainly desirable that the key adults in children's lives relate to them and encourage them in similar ways. To get a sense of the extent to which parents can be involved in children's education, it is helpful to make three distinctions:

parents are educators;
parents give ‘background’ support to practitioners;
many parents work alongside practitioners.

Parents are educators

Tue, 24 Oct 2006 14:55:42 GMT

1 Practitioner – parent partnerships

Parents are educators

There is a sense in which all parents are educators, whether or not they work in conjunction with their child's professional educators. Indeed, some parents extend this intuitive involvement by formally becoming ‘home educators’. Anna Craft writes:

Although most parents choose to educate their children in pre-school settings and schools, a growing minority worldwide choose home education as an alternative. In the late 1990s it was estimated that 25,000 families and 50,000 children were home educated in the UK (Meighan, 1997). However, accurate figures are extremely difficult to obtain, and according to the Home Education Advisory Service in August 2001, estimates of home-educated children vary from between 10,000 and 150,000 in the UK. Some children never begin in formal settings at all, and others are withdrawn later. Thomas (1998) suggests there are a variety of reasons why parents choose home education. These include: hearing about home education and meeting others who are doing it; feeling dissatisfied with what formal settings have on offer; seeing home education as a natural continuation of home life and learning; children's dislike of a formal setting, particularly if bullying is involved.

(Craft, 2002) ©

Parents give ‘background’ support to practitioners

Tue, 24 Oct 2006 14:55:42 GMT

1 Practitioner – parent partnerships

Parents give ‘background’ support to practitioners

Many parents take on an educating role – through their own initiative, or perhaps through their liaison with practitioners and teachers. They provide specific support within families for the learning that children do when they are away from the home environment. In this way, parents can be seen as ‘outreach’ assistants to early years settings and schools.

The government has given active encouragement to this background role at all stages of a child's education, and has provided much in the way of ideas and resources for parents. The government's ‘Parents’ Gateway' site (DfES, 2002) informs parents about education provision, the structure of the education system, the content of the Foundation Stage and the National Curriculum, school tests, the latest government reforms, and how parents can best help their children to learn.

Recently in Scotland, parents have been hearing about the ‘Home Reading Initiative’ (Scottish Executive, 2002). This includes:

a leaflet for parents, which gives guidance to parents of children aged 0–8 on the benefits of home reading and offers details of recommended techniques to make reading a more valuable experience;
an advertising campaign started in November 2002, which aims to raise the profile of home reading and encourage parents to become involved;
the appointment of ‘reading champions’ to encourage parents, carers and children to develop skills in reading at home;
a website with further information for parents and ideas on how to develop local projects to support home reading (launched early 2003);
a small grants scheme, which will make £300,000 available to support small local projects such as book sharing clubs;
a home-reading coordinator responsible for taking the initiative forward.

These government initiatives are very significant in terms of generating parental interest and supporting parental involvement in their children's learning and education. The resources enable parents to be less dependent on early years and school settings to provide this form of information and encouragement.

Many parents work alongside practitioners

Tue, 24 Oct 2006 14:55:42 GMT

1 Practitioner – parent partnerships

Many parents work alongside practitioners

Parents can provide invaluable support to children within an early education setting – offering occasional help when practitioners request it, or working as regular volunteers or maybe as paid assistants. Playgroups rely on this type of parental involvement. Indeed, many early years settings welcome such involvement, not just on the premises but also when children are taken on outings.

Activity 1 Why work with parents?

You should allow 0 hour(s), 30 minute(s).

Take a look at the table here: you will see nine statements on why practitioners should work with parents. Rank them in order of importance, starting with the most important. We suggest you do this activity with someone at home, a neighbour, a colleague at work, or a parent. Alternatively, you may like to arrange them in a diamond ranking order as Figure 3 does:

Figure 2: Table showing nine reasons practitioners work with parents

Figure 3: Ranking of nine reasons practitioners work with parents

Sorting the statements in this way demonstrates how some may be seen as equal in importance. It can also promote increased discussion about their relative significance.

Now read the discussion

Comment

The statements illustrate the many potential benefits of collaboration. They also provide insights into the (assumed) needs of parents. Most of the statements relate to the benefits that partnership offers to parents. However, it is also important to remember the potential benefits for practitioners. They are better informed through listening to parents and taking account of their personal understandings of children – for example, the ‘Knowledge of children’ statement. Practitioners may also be supported by parents in significant practical ways (as the ‘Extra pair of hands’ statement suggests).

Perspectives and challenges

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2 Partnership issues for practitioners

Perspectives and challenges

As we have suggested, parents and practitioners may have different perspectives on partnership, and this raises important issues for practitioners when seeking to involve parents in their work with children. This section highlights five particular issues, or ‘challenges’, for practitioners to consider prior to developing partnerships with parents.

These are:

recognizing that parents are individuals
understanding why some parents decide not to become partners
working with 'challenging' parents
appreciating that parents are both men and women
acknowledging family structures.

Recognizing that parents are individuals

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2 Partnership issues for practitioners

Recognizing that parents are individuals

Just as practitioners regard children as individuals, so it should be with their parents. However, because most parents are more distanced from practitioners' immediate professional lives than children, we tend to hear generalized statements referring to the whole parent body: ‘The parents are supportive’; ‘The parents can be difficult’; ‘The parents are not good at fundraising’.

Carol Vincent (1996) examined home-school relations in a small number of inner-city schools and devised a four-way classification of parental positions vis-a-vis practitioners. She identified four ‘types’ of parents:

Detached parents, who prefer practitioners to take full responsibility and to get on with the job. These parents decide to trust in the training, professionalism and skills of the practitioner. Their position is not an indication of disinterest, although practitioners may see it in this way.

Independent parents, who would like close involvement but lack confidence to instigate this, or who feel the terms offered by practitioners are not attractive. These parents may provide support for their children's learning away from the setting. Their support is therefore not visible to practitioners, who may see these parents as disinterested.

Supportive parents, who readily engage with the invitations and suggestions of practitioners. There is much overlap here with Sharpe and Green's (1975) notion of the ‘good parent’ – in short, parents who do what practitioners suggest.

Irresponsible parents, who appear unsupportive of practitioners or their children's learning. Indeed, in extreme cases their attitude may appear to be counter-productive.

Activity 2 Parents in your setting

You should allow 0 hour(s), 20 minute(s).

Taking into account the above typology, think about the parents of children in your setting. Does this four-way classification help you to understand the parents you come into contact with? Jot down your thoughts in your notebook.

Now read the discussion

Comment

Such classifications can sometimes support or refine our thinking, but they can also serve to reduce and under-represent reality. Perhaps you feel you don't know enough about the parents' lives and feelings to be able to categorize them in this way.

As we have said, a major difficulty for many practitioners concerns their limited contact with most parents. Practitioners spend a lot of time with children but very little time with parents, unless the parents are involved in a setting as a volunteer or paid employee, or they are the practitioners (as in a playgroup). It's easy, therefore, in the absence of detailed knowledge, for assumptions to be made, which give rise to inaccurate stereotypes about parents. Indeed, ignorance and lack of understanding tend to be at the root of bias and prejudice.

Understanding why some parents decide not to be partners

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2 Partnership issues for practitioners

Understanding why some parents decide not to be partners

Carol Vincent's ‘detached’ and ‘independent’ parents remind us that when practitioners set up parent partnerships they need to be mindful of the reasons why some parents choose not to be involved in ways that are proposed.

In terms of parental involvement, it can be argued that a professional approach would involve practitioners developing this ‘mindfulness’ and taking a major responsibility for ‘making things work’. This might include sensitively formulating what is envisaged for the partnership, and listening to parents' views, reactions and wishes. Practitioners both in early years settings and primary schools often make comments such as: ‘You never see the parents you really want to see.’

What might lie behind the appearance of parents' lack of engagement with practitioners? Melian Mansfield of the Campaign for the Advance of State Education (CASE) recently met with a group of parents to try to address this question. The group came up with the following 25 reasons why parents might not be able to attend an early years setting when invited:

Heavy and demanding work commitments
Family pressures
Childcare difficulties
Cost of transport
Lack of confidence at speaking English
Fear of teachers and schools
Unsure about the reason for an invitation
Letter of invitation not getting home
Not able to read the written language of the letter
Language of the letter is ‘formal’ and unfriendly
Insufficient notice of the meeting
Not knowing anyone who will be there
Unsure about going out alone after dark
Dislike of formal meetings
Fear of being asked to do something
Fear of an unwelcoming atmosphere
Worried about what might be said concerning a child
Fear of being held responsible for a child's lack of progress or disruptive behaviour
Low self-esteem, lack of confidence
Fear of being judged
Not wanting to speak in public
Previous commitments
No faith in the school's ability to solve a problem
Expecting that there will be no answer to particular problems
Time limitations because of work and family

Working with ‘challenging’ parents

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2 Partnership issues for practitioners

Working with ‘challenging’ parents

Jennifer Chambers, a childminder, has noted that:

… establishing a working contract with parents can be difficult, especially with the few who sometimes take advantage of me for example, in the slow payment of fees or in their casual approach to dropping off and picking up their children.

(E123, p. 27) ©

In her account, Jennifer doesn't elaborate on the challenges that she has encountered. Her experience, over sixteen years of being a childminder, is that she is able to work well with most parents, and only a few can be considered ‘challenging’.

However, reports from a number of teacher-professional associations suggest that there has been an increase in disrespectful and aggressive behaviour from parents. According to Wallace (2002, p. 10), triggers for problems might be:

money – particularly requests that parents pay nursery fees;
children's behaviour – particularly when parents react strongly to practitioner concerns and complaints;
increased inclusion of children with special educational needs (which has put pressure on parents and practitioners because policy has not been matched by support);
parents' negative feelings towards authority figures.

These potential problems require considerable skills and time for practitioners, who unfortunately are not always trained to deal with the needs of parents. In settings where parents' needs have to be dealt with frequently, difficulties can be minimized when there is a comprehensive and imaginative approach to consulting and working with parents, which may include ongoing opportunities for ‘dialogue’. People who know each other well are less likely to resort to rudeness or aggression to solve their disagreements.

Margaret Morrissey of the National Confederation of Parent Teacher Associations brings reason and proportion to this whole debate when she says:

The vast majority of parents – 95 per cent – are extremely supportive. As for the percentage who are not, they may not be interested, or too stressed or too busy. We look at what we can do to help them, rather than blaming them.

(Ward and Passmore, 2002) ©

Parents are both women and men

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2 Partnership issues for practitioners

Parents are both women and men

The gender-neutral term ‘parents’ is rightly inclusive of both mothers and fathers. It does, however, mask the fact that women mainly take the lead in childcare and interact with early years and primary settings. In the call to raise standards, there have been growing expectations that parents should actively support children's early and school learning.

Rosalind Coward expresses concern about the impact that this could have on mothers. Women, she suggests, take the major responsibility for children's care. Many do voluntary and paid work in the public sector, including early years settings, and many follow practitioners' suggestions with regard to supporting children's learning at home (Coward, 1993). It is therefore not difficult to see why some mothers may feel hard-pressed, if not angry, about the weight of these involvements and expectations. Walkerdine and Lucey (1989) fear that children and mothers are being put on a pedagogic treadmill. In all early years settings there will be parents who feel under pressure from work, domestic responsibilities and life more generally. Invitations to become more involved in a child's early education could result in protest or even an angry outburst.

In recent times, there is reason to think that men have become more involved in childcare – both as fathers taking responsibility for children at home, and also as parents maintaining contact with early years settings. However, as suggested above, women mainly do this work. This leads Penn and McQuail to regard childcare as ‘a deeply gendered field’ (1997, p. 39). We only have to observe young children being taken to and collected from an early years setting to see that, to a considerable extent, the long-established division of labour between men and women still exists in most families.

There is a sense, however, in which many fathers are ‘hidden’ parents. Fathers may often be involved at a distance. They may intuitively support their children's learning at home, and communicate their feelings and wishes through their partners. Nevertheless, it seems that parental partnership in children's early education is largely something that happens between women (as practitioners) and women (as parents).

Recognizing this imbalance, some early years settings have taken steps to encourage a more equal sharing of family responsibilities between men and women. For instance, Ghedini et al. (1995) write of a cross-national project between the Pen Green Centre in Corby, England, and the Emilia-Romagna region of northern Italy. The project explored gender roles within families and early years settings, and set about encouraging increased participation of fathers in the care of their children. At Pen Green, for example, the centre's environment was made more ‘men friendly’ by:

displaying photos of fathers with their children;
preparing a video to help examine how staff greet mothers and fathers;
visiting fathers in their own homes, discussing their involvement and how they would like to use the centre;
writing specifically to fathers, and inviting them to attend meetings and events;
establishing a men's group led by a male centre worker;
advertising specifically for male workers.

Activity 3 Enabling fathers to participate

You should allow 0 hour(s), 20 minute(s).

Consider the extent to which fathers are involved in the care and education that you provide for children. Do you feel there is room for more involvement? If so, what practical steps might you take to encourage greater participation? Write down your thoughts in your notebook.

Now read the discussion

Comment

It is desirable that early years practitioners take steps to increase fathers' involvement in services for young children. However, it is important to have an awareness of the possible difficulties that can be encountered. Despite a growing practitioner interest in more equal responsibilities between men and women, the prevailing attitudes and expectations of society continue to assume that women are the primary carers for children. Indeed, women themselves can play a part in reinforcing this. For instance, Ghedhini et al. (1995) found that some women preferred a ‘male-free’ setting, as they felt threatened by men working alongside them and worried that they might just be seeking management positions. And Penn and McQuail (1997) found that some women actually supported the gender stereotypes underpinning childcare in the home and the workplace – for instance, caring for children was fundamentally ‘natural’ for women and ‘unnatural’ for men. Practitioners who seek to influence, and perhaps change, established family gender responsibilities in the areas of childcare and parental contact with early years settings will need to proceed sensitively.

Acknowledging family structures

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2 Partnership issues for practitioners

Acknowledging family structures

Understandably, family structures impact on partnership practice, and practitioners need a good knowledge of the many forms that families can take. It's important not to make the assumption that most children live with a mother and a father who are married. Tassoni (2002) summarizes the main kinds of family arrangements that provide care for children:

Figure 4: Some possible family structures

In a ‘nuclear family’, mother and father live together with their children but separately from other family members. They may be married or ‘co-habiting’.
In a ‘homosexual family’, a homosexual couple takes care of children. They may be gay or lesbian.
In a ‘reconstituted family’, children live with one natural parent and a step-parent. Families may also include step-sisters and brothers and/or half-sisters and brothers.
In an ‘adoptive family’, children may live with adopted or foster parents.
In a ‘communal family’, children may live with their parents in communes where other members are also involved in the childcare.
In a ‘nomadic family’, parents do not have a permanent home, and travel from place to place with their children – traveller families, for example.
In a ‘lone-parent family’, a single parent takes care of children, either through choice or for other reasons. This may be, for instance, because of divorce or separation, or the death of a partner.
In an ‘extended family’, family members live together and share the care of children.

(Adapted from Tassoni, 2000, p. 272.)

In all early years settings there are children who come from a number of these family arrangements. It is important for practitioners to see each of these arrangements as potentially very supportive of the needs of both adults and children, and crucial that they do not make assumptions about the nature of families when setting up partnerships with parents. Jane Ribbens believes families to be ‘private and intimately defined’ structures (Ribbens, 2000): the extent to which practitioners have knowledge of children's family arrangements will depend on what children and their parents or carers feel they want to disclose. Clearly, this is an area that requires considerable tact from practitioners.

Parent – practitioner relationships

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3 Partnership in practice

Parent – practitioner relationships

In this section we focus specifically on parental involvement practice and look at the following four expressions of partnership:

parents following practitioner suggestions;
practitioners providing courses for parents;
parents and practitioners supporting each other;
parents taking the lead with practitioner support.

These different expressions illustrate the many possible forms that partnership can take. Each way can be seen as important in terms of interpreting and developing partnership practice.

Parents following practitioner suggestions

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3 Partnership in practice

Parents following practitioner suggestions

A great deal of partnership involves parents responding to practitioners' ideas. This often involves the recommendation of specific activities that can be carried out within children's homes and communities to support the work of an early education setting. For instance:

drawing and painting;
playing games;
encouraging free and exploratory play;
singing songs and making music;
going on outings;
looking at and reading story books;
playing with letters and numbers;
cooking.

In 1998 the Basic Skills Agency (BSA) made available to Local Education Authorities (LEAs) in England and Wales multiple copies of a magazine called Count and Figure it out Together. The magazine was aimed at children aged 3–5 and their parents, and contained ideas for supporting children's mathematical development at home. There were suggestions with regard to playing games, learning counting songs, and promoting mathematical language. Many early years settings distributed these, and there was reason to think that parents and children found them helpful.

Adventure Ted

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3 Partnership in practice

Adventure Ted

Sometimes novel ideas are used to stimulate parent–practitioner partnership. Caroline Struthers runs a home–school partnership project in South Lanarkshire. She uses ‘Adventure Ted’ to stimulate a range of home activities, which are both supportive and extending of the learning that children do in nursery and Primary One (reception) classes.

In the following case study, Caroline outlines how Ted is used.

Adventure Ted in practice

Adventure Ted is actually the name of a programme. It is facilitated by the home – school partnership staff in South Lanarkshire, Scotland, and used to help children develop effective communication skills – orally and also through imaginative, personal and functional writing. Adventure Ted comes in a rucksack containing:

Disposable camera

Storybook

Alphabet sheet

Wipe board

Pencils

Glue stick

Scrapbook for pictures and stories

The programme typically starts off with an introduction to Ted, followed by a story from our Adventure Ted storybook and a shared discussion with some writing about a photo of Ted. The children then have photos taken with Ted, and each choose a picture of themselves with Ted to stick into their scrapbooks. They draw speech bubbles coming out of Ted's mouth and, with help from their parents, write down what he is saying. The practitioner may also demonstrate shared writing using alphabet cards and a dry-wipe board. ‘Here I am with Adventure Ted who is …’ and so on. At home, parents may help their children to create their own story, and then extend the work by asking them to read it out.

Figure 5

Ted is taken for a period of six to eight weeks, and the children have the chance to take photos of him on his many adventures linked to family life. These adventures can range from school trips, playing with friends, visits to relatives, the local shops or the cinema. Some of the stories have been incredible! One child, writing in her storybook, told us that Rover the dog had bitten Ted one night. Another child let us know how Ted had helped him with his homework.

Each Adventure Ted review session starts off with informal discussion with parents over tea and biscuits. You know when you have created the right kind of climate when parents relax and tell you things. For instance, one mother said: ‘Bridie can now explain her stories better and uses a lot more words. In fact she never stops talking!’

All photos the children have taken with Ted are displayed in the school and discussed and shared with others. At the end of the programme, children and parents are invited to attend a teddy bears' picnic and are presented with certificates in recognition of the work they have undertaken.

Adventure Ted provides an example of how a practical idea can bring parents, children and practitioners together in a very meaningful way. The programme provides a bridge between the respective contexts of home and school in a way that is highly desirable for the continuity of children's learning.

Bookstart

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3 Partnership in practice

Bookstart

Figure 6

Bookstart is another innovative ‘practitioner to parent’ partnership idea that has been running since the 1990s. There are now Bookstart schemes operating throughout the UK. They usually include an LEA, a library service and a health authority working together in partnership. A free Bookstart pack is given to parents at the time of a baby's 7–9 month developmental check. The pack typically contains two baby books, advice and information leaflets, and an invitation to join the local library.

Bookstart schemes promote the idea that there is much of value when parents share books with babies, interact and talk with them, and attend to their responses. The University of Birmingham School of Education evaluated the pilot Bookstart schemes. The researchers indicated a substantial increase in babies’ awareness of books, in the sharing of books, in enrolment of babies in libraries, in the use of book clubs, and in the general use of books in homes. Their follow-up studies found that children who had been involved with Bookstart as babies did particularly well at school learning, as assessed by baseline measures (Wade and Moore, 1998, 2000).

Books that have proved popular with babies include:

Baby Knows Best (Henderson, 2001)

Hat off, Baby! (Ormerod, 2002)

Naughty Puppy (Campbell, 2002)

Say Goodnight (Oxenbury, 1998)

Tickle, Tickle (Oxenbury, 1987)

Ting-a-ling! (Dodds, 1999)

Weinberger (1996) has identified two key experiences in children's lives that can help them to become readers: first, that they have a favourite book by the age of three; and second, that they become members of a library. Bookstart does much that enables this to happen.

In some areas, Bookstart and Sure Start are working together. Sure Start aims to improve the health and well-being of families and children (before and from birth) so that children are ready to flourish when they go to school.

Rosemary Clarke, National Coordinator for Bookstart, explains the links with Sure Start, and highlights future developments for Bookstart:

The major difference between Sure Start and the national Bookstart programme is that Bookstart intends to reach every baby in the UK. Sure Start is targeted towards designated areas of social need. However, Bookstart schemes are working very effectively in partnership with Sure Start areas. There is a considerable amount of Bookstart outreach work in Sure Start areas, and the schemes have often built on the success of the first Bookstart pack for eight month olds by providing a further Bookstart Plus pack for children aged eighteen months. Sure Start has recognized that often more than one intervention is needed if the Bookstart message is to be taken on by parents.

The new Bookstart Plus pack was launched in autumn 2002, and is available from Booktrust, the charity that administers Bookstart. It was followed by a My Bookstart Bag for three year olds in autumn 2003. Due to funding constraints, only the Bookstart pack for children aged eight months is available to every UK child at the moment. However, Sure Start areas may decide to provide their children with the advantage of the two extra Bookstart gifts, such as Bookstart Plus and My Bookstart Bag.

Parents who are not familiar with Bookstart can make contact with their health visitor, nursery nurse or local library to find out more about local schemes. Parents who live in areas where there are no schemes can receive a free ‘mini’ Bookstart pack from Booktrust.

Activity 4 Making suggestions

You should allow 0 hour(s), 20 minute(s).

What kinds of suggestions do you make to parents about how they can support their children's development and learning at home? Make a note of some of these in your notebook.

Now read the discussion

Comment

Making suggestions is potentially an important way to develop a partnership. It can help to harmonize the respective approaches of practitioners and parents, and to increase opportunities for desirable learning within homes.

It is important, however, for practitioners to realize that some of their suggestions may be practised already in children's homes. Many parents instinctively do things with children that are of potential benefit to their learning. Much of this is not visible to practitioners because it takes place within the stream of family, community and religious life. Noticing this in the 1980s, Sharpe (1980) referred to the ‘hidden hand of home’.

Parents need to feel they can openly discuss their ideas for supporting children's learning without the risk of correction. To enable parents to discuss their ideas in this way, practitioners must be sensitive to parents' feelings and use considerable interpersonal skills.

Practitioners providing courses for parents

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3 Partnership in practice

Practitioners providing courses for parents

A well-known way of increasing goodwill, understanding, and a sense of partnership between practitioners and parents is through the provision of courses and workshops. These can take many forms, but essentially they involve inviting parents to a setting to:

give them information;
support their understanding of what their children experience in the setting;
enable them to give information about their children;
help them to be more effective supporters of their children's learning;
help them to feel confident about approaching practitioners with queries and suggestions.

Sheila Karran article

Article on the role of the bilingual education assistant in working with parents with little confidence.

View document about Sheila Karran article

Activity 5 Increasing parents' confidence

You should allow 1 hour(s), 20 minute(s).

In Article 1 (above), Sheila Karran provides examples of three types of parent courses:

a ‘Parents and learning’ course for Sylheti-speaking parents with children in nursery and reception classes;
an arrangement whereby Mirpuri-speaking parents and grandparents are invited into a nursery to participate in children's activities;
family learning sessions in a nursery, which involve parents, aunts and uncles, grandparents and younger siblings.

Please read Karran's article, taking particular note of the role of the bilingual assistant, and the benefits – for parents, children and practitioners – that stem from the initiatives described. Make notes in your notebook.

Now read the discussion

Comment

Bilingual assistants play an essential ‘intermediary’ role in terms of linking with parents and helping them feel sufficiently confident to attend courses and to enter an early years setting. In the examples described, the bilingual assistants are mainly paid employees. However, in settings where there are no such posts to provide support, volunteer bilingual parents may sometimes be recruited.

The chapter highlights some important benefits of running parent groups. You may, for instance, have noted the following:

Parents are able to benefit from an increase in their personal confidence. They can feel more able to support their children's learning, and to be more comfortable about visiting and spending time in their children's setting. Parents also stand to gain from having their learning accredited. This might lead to employment within an early years setting, for example, or the decision to enrol for a course at an adult education college. Providing support for parents from minority ethnic communities who lack confidence in speaking English may help them to feel less isolated and, importantly, may foster race relations. An issue raised by Karran's chapter, however, is the need to make sure that all parents - from both majority and minority ethnic groups – feel they are equally valued and provided for.

Children can gain much from practitioner – parent contact. This includes the increased ability of their parents to help them, the knowledge that significant adults in their life want to work together and understand each other's views, and the way in which home and setting are brought together with the potential of influencing and learning from each other.

Practitioners are put in touch with parents' understandings and skills, and their attitudes to education. Table 1 in the chapter, for instance, is revealing of some cultural differences with regard to education practices. There is a need for dialogue to establish a common approach, or children could be confused. Practitioners may feel more supported and appreciated if parents become more informed about the work and aims of an early years setting.

Parents and practitioners supporting each other

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3 Partnership in practice

Parents and practitioners supporting each other

At the beginning of Section 1 of this unit we gave a definition of partnership, which included the idea that it is ‘a joint business’. We next consider a partnership initiative in which parents and practitioners act both jointly and interdependently.

Hancock and Cox article

Article on parents and children under three at Tate Britain, London

View document about Hancock and Cox article

Activity 6 Combining expertise

You should allow 1 hour(s), 20 minute(s).

Now read Article 2 (above). As you read, consider the ways in which parents and practitioners work together to enable very young children to be in a public gallery and learn from the experience.

Now read the discussion

Comment

Although public galleries nowadays are open to a range of audiences, including children, it is still not common to find programmes specifically aimed at under threes. Meeting the needs of very young children in a prominent public gallery could be seen as a ‘risky’ thing to do.

Figure 7

However, as you read in the chapter, the inclusion of parents as partners can greatly reduce such risks, and actually increase the impact of the workshops for the children. The workshop leaders were well qualified to provide learning experiences, both for children and parents. This combination of practitioners' professional knowledge and parents' understanding of the needs of their children was a very powerful mix of expertise.

Maybe you create opportunities in your own setting for parents to make such a contribution to your work with the children. Or perhaps you can envisage how you might encourage this form of ‘interdependent’ partnership.

Parents taking the lead with practitioner support

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3 Partnership in practice

Parents taking the lead with practitioner support

There are some situations in which parents become leaders in ways that are not typical, even in early years settings. Footprints, for example, is a parent-run breastfeeding support project that arose out of Sure Start. In the case study below, Emma Yates, a researcher, explains the purpose of Footprints.

Footprints: a breastfeeding project

Footprints is a drop-in group on a Wednesday morning. Its main aim is to provide breastfeeding support for mums with babies, but much else happens as well. The group was set up by Sally Jeffs, Amanda Fellgate and Samantha Brace, who are all mums with small babies. They had each experienced problems with breastfeeding, and felt they would like to offer support to others in a similar position. The group has now been running very successfully for a year, and is entirely run by mums, with professional support given by a Sure Start health visitor when needed. Sally, Amanda and Samatha are visiting new mums in hospitals, where they offer information and advice at their bedside.

When Sally originally went to Sure Start and suggested the idea of Footprints, she was provided with support and the means to get started. She managed to locate the premises in which to hold the group, and was able to liaise with health visitors and midwives. A teenage worker and a play worker also helped by distributing information packs to parents. In addition, Sally was given office support for photocopying, printing and telephoning. As she says, ‘Sure Start offered encouragement and support throughout – not just financial. When we went through a rough patch they helped us to keep the group going by their ongoing support.’ Sure Start is also paying for the group's first birthday party.

Although the major focus is breastfeeding, there are clear educational spin-offs, both for children and parents. As Sally explains: ‘We were using the toys in the Salvation Army premises and they were very old and a bit unhygienic, to be honest. We thought, would we let our own children play with them? The answer was clearly “no”. We managed to obtain a grant of £350 for new toys, equipment and books. We chose the toys according to the early years points of learning. The emphasis was on “enhancing toys” for babies, but for older siblings we bought a tower with different platforms, Noah's Ark, tents, tunnels and books. We blocked off one half of the room for the older children to play.’ The atmosphere during a normal group session is relaxed, and relates to the feeling of a creche or a playgroup. Young babies are clearly stimulated by the sights and sounds, and siblings get much from being with and playing with each other.

All three parents have undergone a ten-week training course to ensure they have the skills to offer the best support for a particular situation. The training provides insights into nutrition and breast health. There is recognition that every mum is different, and that some may prefer to share breastfeeding difficulties with another experienced mum rather than go to a clinic or talk to a health visitor. Sure Start has given the group a commitment to ongoing training, to make sure that mums are provided with up-to-date support. Sally has done various other courses through Sure Start. These include ‘Breastfeeding for Special Care Babies’, ‘Child Behaviour Management Volunteer Training’, ‘United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) Baby Friendly Intensive’, and ‘Nutrition’. She is also about to start the National Childbirth Trust's (NCT) ‘Breastfeeding Councillor's Course’.

Activity 7 Parents supporting parents

You should allow 0 hour(s), 30 minute(s).

The Footprints project gives a sense of what parents can achieve when they are enabled and supported by professionals. Within your setting, are there any ways in which you encourage parents to support each other? If nothing springs to mind, consider how you might set about helping this to happen. Write down some thoughts in your notebook.

Now read the discussion

Comment

As we have said, many partnership arrangements involve parents doing what practitioners suggest. This can have much value, but it is important to remember that parents have the capacity to provide support and learn from each other. In some situations, therefore, it might be best for professionals to take a ‘back seat’ facilitator's role rather than a more traditional leading role.

Five dimensions to parental involvement

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4 A framework for understanding partnership

Five dimensions to parental involvement

Over the years, writers have put forward models, frameworks and typologies for understanding the theoretical and practical dimensions of partnership. The curriculum guidance documents produced respectively for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland each contain guidance on how best to achieve a partnership with parents through practical means. For instance, the Northern Ireland Council for Curriculum, Examinations and Assessments (CCEA) stresses the importance of supporting transition, of keeping parents fully informed, of drawing on family expertise, and of encouraging children to take pre-school learning home (DENI, 1997, p. 11).

Suggestions for practice are helpful to practitioners. However, it is also important to have a wider sense of the scope of partnership and the many practical ways in which it can be expressed. We have given an indication of the nature of this scope in Section 3. Partnership practice tends to be formulated by professionals – by policy writers, early years specialists, educational theorists and practitioners – but rarely by parents themselves. So it is important to have a conception of partnership that goes beyond what professionals might feel is appropriate; a vision that leaves some space for creative and unexpected ideas from parents and children.

Gillian Pugh and Erica De'Ath studied 130 nurseries, early years groups and centres. They came up with a framework to help practitioners and parents think widely about partnership (Pugh and De'Ath, 1989). They identified five dimensions to parental involvement shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Five dimensions to parental involvement

Type of involvement	Characteristics
1 Non-participation	Parents are not involved in their children's learning
Active	These parents are ‘active’ non-participants who decide not to be involved. They may be happy with what's on offer, or very busy at work, or want time away from their children (Carol Vincent called these ‘detached parents’).
Passive	These parents are ‘passive’ non-participants who would like to be involved, but may lack the confidence to do this, or may be unhappy with the form of partnership offered (Carol Vincent called these ‘independent parents’).
2 Support	Parents support a setting ‘from the outside’
	These parents become involved but only when invited, e.g. by attending events or providing money for learning resources.
3 Participation	Parents participate in a setting ‘from within’
Parents as helpers	These parents help in ways such as providing assistance on outings, supporting children's learning in the setting, or running a toy library.
Parents as learners	These parents attend workshops and parent education sessions.
4 Partnership	Parents are involved in a working relationship with practitioners
	These parents' involvement is characterized by a shared sense of purpose and mutual respect. For example:
	Parents have equal access to information and records; Parents share in the diagnosis and assessment of their children; Parents share in the selection of practitioners; Parents are encouraged to become practitioners.
5 Control	Parents determine and implement decisions
	These parents are ultimately responsible and accountable for the provision of the setting.

Partnership in your setting

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4 A framework for understanding partnership

Partnership in your setting

Activity 8

You should allow 0 hour(s), 20 minute(s).

Look again at Table 1, and consider how your relationships and initiatives with parents relate to the types that are identified:

Table 1: Five dimensions to parental involvement

Type of involvement	Characteristics
1 Non-participation	Parents are not involved in their children's learning
Active	These parents are ‘active’ non-participants who decide not to be involved. They may be happy with what's on offer, or very busy at work, or want time away from their children (Carol Vincent called these ‘detached parents’).
Passive	These parents are ‘passive’ non-participants who would like to be involved, but may lack the confidence to do this, or may be unhappy with the form of partnership offered (Carol Vincent called these ‘independent parents’).
2 Support	Parents support a setting ‘from the outside’
	These parents become involved but only when invited, e.g. by attending events or providing money for learning resources.
3 Participation	Parents participate in a setting ‘from within’
Parents as helpers	These parents help in ways such as providing assistance on outings, supporting children's learning in the setting, or running a toy library.
Parents as learners	These parents attend workshops and parent education sessions.
4 Partnership	Parents are involved in a working relationship with practitioners
	These parents' involvement is characterized by a shared sense of purpose and mutual respect. For example:
	Parents have equal access to information and records; Parents share in the diagnosis and assessment of their children; Parents share in the selection of practitioners; Parents are encouraged to become practitioners.
5 Control	Parents determine and implement decisions
	These parents are ultimately responsible and accountable for the provision of the setting.

How would you characterize the nature of parent partnership in your setting?

In what ways can your partnership with parents be defined and justified?

Do you feel your practice is sufficiently developed in this area?

Write down your answers in your notebook.

Now read the discussion

Comment

In many early years settings it would not be considered appropriate to establish a form of partnership whereby parents are equal partners in the way that type 4 in the table defines, or for parents to assume control, as in type 5. In defining the kinds of partnership that should be associated with any one particular early years setting, it is important for practitioners to have a good sense of parents' capacity to enter into such partnerships. Practitioners also need to be realistic about the time and resources available to them. Parents will be disappointed if professionals make promises that they are unable to fulfil.

Practitioners in various settings will have strong feelings about the kinds of partnership that are most supportive of their work. As we said earlier, there are considerable variations in the ways in which educational settings interpret the notion of partnership. These are both understandable and necessary, and require complex professional decisions to be made. The decision-making process involves a sense of what is feasible, given the nature of a parent body, and also a sense of what is most appropriate for children's needs.

Ball (1994) considers partnership to be about ‘balance’, which draws attention to the ways in which the needs, ideas and limitations of parents, children and practitioners must be considered. However, it is important to recognize that all forms of parental involvement and partnership are potentially valuable. The central question that should be asked of any partnership arrangement is: To what extent is it directly or indirectly benefiting the children?

Review

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4 A framework for understanding partnership

Review

In this unit we have looked at the notion of parents as partners. We have identified a cluster of reasons why partnership is considered important – for children, parents and practitioners – and have provided examples of ways in which it can be interpreted in practice. We have also set out a conceptual framework to accommodate the possible range of parental involvement and partnership practice.

Parental involvement practice is invariably conceptualized and specified by professionals. It is necessary, therefore, for practitioners to be open and receptive to feedback and suggestions both from parents and children. Some parents, for reasons that may not be apparent to practitioners, are reluctant to become involved in their children's care and education; others may choose not to become involved. Practitioners need to be aware of parents' feelings, and to be cautious about blaming them for what seems to be a lack of interest.

As we have seen throughout this unit, partnership can take many forms. Projects and special initiatives to encourage parental involvement can be exciting and stimulating, but also short-lived and heavily dependent on the provision of extra funds. Ultimately, partnership needs to be a way of life that becomes embedded in the ongoing day-to-day exchanges that take place between parents, practitioners and children.

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References

Tue, 24 Oct 2006 14:55:42 GMT

References

Awdurdod Cymwysterau, Cwricwlwm ac Asesu Cymru (ACCAC, or the Qualifications, Curriculum and Assessment Authority for Wales) (2000) Desirable Outcomes for Children's Learning before Compulsory School Age, Cardiff, ACCAC.

Ball, C. (1994) Start Right: The importance of early learning, London, Royal Society of Arts.

Bastiani, J. (1996) Home-School Contracts and Agreements: Opportunity or threat?, London, Royal Society of Arts.

Bastiani, J. and Wolfendale, S. (eds) (1996) Home-School Work in Britain: Review, reflection and development, London, David Fulton.

Campbell, R. (2002) Naughty Puppy, London, Pan Macmillan.

Cassidy, S. (2002) ‘Mums and dads come out to play’, The Independent, 16 May, pp. 4–5.

E123: [NEED TO ADD FULL DETAILS HER: AUTHORS, COPUBLISHERS, IF RELEVANT, ETC.

Committee of Enquiry into the Education of Handicapped Children and Young People (CEEHCYP) (1978) Special Educational Needs, Warnock Report, London, HMSO.

Coward, R. (1993) Our Treacherous Hearts: Why women let men get their way, London, Faber and Faber.

Craft, A. (2002) Unpublished paper on home education, Milton Keynes, The Open University.

Department for Education and Skills (DfES) (2002) ‘Parents’ Gateway’ [online], http://www.dfes.gov.uk/parentsgateway/index.shtml (accessed 3 December 2002).

Department of Education Northern Ireland (DENI) (1997) Curriculum Guidance for Pre-School Education, Belfast, Northern Ireland Council for Curriculum and Assessment.

Dodds, S. (1999) Ting-a-ling, London, Dorling Kindersley.

Edwards, R. (ed.) (2002) Children, Home and School: Regulation, autonomy or connection?, London, RoutledgeFalmer.

Ghedini, P., Chandler, T., Whalley, M. and Moss, P. (1995) Fathers, Nurseries and Childcare, Corby, Pen Green Centre.

Hancock, R., Gale, S., Mansfield, M. and Stoker, D. (1998) Home-School Agreements: Which way forward?, London, Tower Hamlets Parents Advice Centre.

Henderson, K. (2001) Baby Knows Best, London, Doubleday.

Maclure, J. S. (1968) Educational Documents: England and Wales 1816–1967, London, Methuen.

Meighan, R. (1997) The Next Learning System, Nottingham, Educational Heretics Press.

Ormerod, J. (2002) Hat off, Baby!, Hauppauge, NY, Barron's Educational Series.

Oxenbury, H. (1987) Tickle, Tickle, London, Walker Books.

Oxenbury, H. (1998) Say Goodnight, London, Walker Books.

Penn, H. and McQuail, S. (1997) Childcare as a Gendered Occupation, London, Department for Education and Employment.

Pugh, G. and De'Ath, E. (1989) Working Towards Partnership in the Early Years, London, National Children's Bureau, London.

Ribbens, J. (2000) untitled paper presented at an Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) seminar ‘Parents and Schools’, Bath Spa University, 18 October.

Scottish Executive (2002) ‘Home Reading Initiative launched’ [online], http://www.scotland.gov.uk/pages/news/2002/08/SEED075.aspx (accessed 21 November 2002).

Sharpe, L. (1980) ‘Home-school relations: a reconceptualisation’ (unpublished thesis), Brighton, University of Sussex.

Sharpe, R. and Green, A. (1975) Education and Social Control: A study in progressive primary education, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Tassoni, P. (2000, 2^nd edn) Certificate Child Care and Education, Oxford, Heinemann.

Thomas, A. (1998) Educating Children at Home, London, Cassell.

Vincent, C. (1996) Parents and Teachers: Power and participation, London, Falmer Press.

Wade, B. and Moore, M. (1998) Bookstart: The first five years, London, Booktrust.

Wade, B. and Moore, M. (2000) ‘A Sure Start with books’, Early Years, 20(2), pp. 39–46.

Wallace, W. (2002) ‘Meet the parents’, Nursery World, 2 May, pp. 10–11.

Walkerdine, V. and Lucey, H. (1989) Democracy in the Kitchen: Regulating mothers and socialising daughters, London, Virago.

Ward, H. and Passmore, B. (2002) ‘Morris says parents undermine discipline’, Times Educational Supplement, 15 February, p. 6.

Weinberger, J. (1996) Literacy Goes to School: The parents’ role in young children's literacy learning, London, Paul Chapman.

Wolfendale, S. (1987) Primary Schools and Special Needs: Policy, planning and provision, London, Cassell.

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Acknowledgements

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Acknowledgements

Grateful acknowledgement is made to the following sources for permission to reproduce material in this unit:

The content acknowledged below is Proprietary and used under licence (not subject to Creative Commons licence). See Terms and Conditions.

Text

E123 Reader - Working with children in the early years (ed by Jane Devereux and Linda Miller) David Fulton Publishers in association with The Open University:

Chapter 7: Karran, S. (1997) ' "Auntie - Ji, please come and join us, just for an hour." The role of the bilingual education assistant in working with parents with little confidence', Home-School Work in Multicultural Settings, ed. J. Bastiani, London: David Fulton Publishers

Chapter 9: Roger Hancock with Alison Cox: 'I can sing a rainbow': parents and children under three at Tate Britain, London.

Figures

Figure 1: Courtesy of Sally Jeffs;

Figure 2 & 3: De'Ath, E. and Pugh, G. (eds) (1986) Working with Parents: A training resource pack, National Children's Bureau;

Figure 4: Adapted from Tassoni, P. (2000) Certificate Child Care and Education, 2^nd edn, Heinemann Educational Publishing;

Figure 5: Courtesy of Caroline Struthers;

Figure 7: Supplied by Tate Education Department.

Related educational resources

Tue, 24 Oct 2006 14:55:42 GMT

This is a list of all the Related educational resources for the unit E123_1 - Parents as partners